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Red blood cell aggregation and disaggregation

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The blood profile reveals a person’s state of health. If we look at a blood sample of an unhealthy subject, we will see that the red blood cells (RBCs) are sticking together (aggregating) and behaving like glue – with high resistance to flow (“high viscosity”).

Under a microscope, the blood sample of an unhealthy subject would look something like in figure 1:



Figure 1: Blood sample of an unhealthy person


With the same person in a healthy condition, his blood sample would look entirely different, as in figure 2 below:



Figure 2: Blood sample of a relatively healthy person


Visually, it is clear that the main difference between the two samples is how the red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes are seen to be aggregated in figure 1 and disaggregated in figure 2. It is not possible to demonstrate from a static picture like this but when the blood samples were taken, the blood in figure 2 was also observed to be less viscous.

“Blood aggregation” was coined as early as 1786 by health knowledge leaders. Occasionally it is called “blood sludging”. Whatever the phenomenon is called, it has been associated with many diseases.[1]

This may surprise many: the two samples above are actually “before” and “after” pictures of blood samples taken only 30 minutes apart from the same subject after using an intranasal (or endonasal) device like the Qi-Light by RadiantLife as shown in Figure 3 below. They are typical of many who have used the device.



Figure 3: The Qi-Light in use

Effect of RBC aggregation on blood circulation and tissue perfusion

The following is extracted from a review of evidence-based work on RBC aggregation by Baskurt and Meiselman.[2]

Effect of RBC aggregation on microcirculatory blood flow

In studies employing intravital microscopy it has been observed that intensified RBC aggregation increases microvascular flow resistance.[3] RBC aggregation in arterial and/or capillary microcirculation would affect the bulk viscosity of blood in larger blood vessels and the increased energy cost of disaggregation at the entrance of microcirculation.[4]

RBC aggregation has also been found to decrease the density of functional capillaries, resulting in decreased overall microcirculatory blood flow. This is found to be especially significant under reduced arterial pressure.[5] Enhanced RBC aggregation also fills capillaries with non-flowing RBC making these capillaries dysfunctional.[6]

Effect of RBC aggregation on venous flow resistance

The venous side of the circulatory system returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart and lungs to discharge the waste and carbon dioxide. Blood flow in the venous circulation is characterized by lower shear rates (change in velocity of blood flow parallel to vascular walls) compared to the arterial side. For this reason occurrences of RBC aggregation are more significant in the venous circulation areas.[7]

Experiments show that normal RBC aggregation significantly contributes to venous vascular resistance in resting muscles and plays a significant role in vascular system homeostasis (stable bodily state).[8] It has also been demonstrated that RBC aggregation affects velocity profiles in venous blood flow, especially under reduced flow rates.[9] The energy loss caused by RBC aggregation contributes to flow resistance.

Effect of RBC aggregation on whole organ perfusion

A study isolated a rat’s heart and then perfused it with a different concentration of dextran (a compound often used by researchers to simulate RBC aggregation). The results suggest that relatively low levels of RBC aggregation may reduce flow resistance in the organ, whereas greatly enhanced aggregation greatly increases resistance to blood perfusion to the organs.[10]

Effect of RBC aggregation on tissue hematocrit

At the tissue level, tissues are also adversely affected when they are not properly provided with nourishing blood. They are served by the network of capillaries; and as discussed, if the flow is impeded by RBC aggregation, their condition will be adversely impacted. There are however, specific studies that look into tissues: more specifically on hematocrit (the ratio of blood volume occupied by RBC). Tests demonstrate that alterations in RBC aggregation induced by fibrinogen infusions affect tissue hematocritic values in rat myocardium (muscular middle layer of the wall of the heart).[11] These experiments were also repeated using more recently developed poloxmer coating method to alter RBC aggregation. These confirm that enhanced RBC aggregation alters myocardial tissue hematocrit values.[12]

Summary

In summary there is substantial evidence to show that RBC aggregation impedes blood flow. The presence of RBC aggregation affects microcirculatory blood flow, venous flow, whole organ perfusion, and tissue hematocrit.


Theoretical and evidential explanation for RBC aggregation

For decades it has been known that macro proteins fibrinogen and globulins may increase blood viscosity by interaction with RBCs to increase aggregation. Chien et al discussed this in 1970.[13] Fibrinogen is inflammation-sensitive and is a dominant factor in RBC aggregation.[14] It was found to have mechanisms that encourage the RBCs to bind together.[15] The body elevates the level of fibrinogen when there is inflammation, resulting in RBC aggregation.

Whether it is the presence of both fibrinogen and globulin or either of them that is associated with RBC aggregation, the news is not good. They are elevated because of a disease or health disorder. Other factors do contribute to RBC aggregation; some of these are not be of serious concern. A list of influencing factors are:

• Biochemical parameters: plasma ionic strength, pH, temperature, plasma viscosity, superficial ionic charges, age, shape of RBCs.

• Haemorheological factors: plasma viscosity, hematocrit, a2-macroglobulin, and RBC deformity. Fibrinogen comes under this category.

• Haemodynamic factors: shear stress, shear rate, vessel diameter, blood velocity, fluid motion characteristics and vessel wall shear stress.[16]

• Hyperlipidemia (elevated level of lipids that includes cholesterols and triglycerides)[17] and elevated levels of lipoprotein cholesterols.[18]


The theoretical explanations for LLLT disaggregation of RBC

The anti-inflammation theory

As mentioned earlier, the presence of RBC aggregation is commonly attributed to inflammation which then stimulate the release of fibrinogen into the blood circulation system.

When inflammation is reduced through LLLT, the level of fibrinogen in the blood will also be reduced. As the result RBCs will be visibly disaggregated.

Literature suggests that LLLT reduces inflammation through healing and regeneration actions, amongst which include stabilizing the cellular membranes[19] , enhancing ATP production and synthesis which contribute to cellular healing[20] , vasodilatation (dilation of blood vessels)[21] , acceleration of leukocyte and lymphocyte activities to remove damaged cellular components and allowing for more rapid repair[22] , and helps regenerate blood capillaries[23] .

There is also a recent study suggesting that LLLT illumination “decreases the amount of inflammation and accelerates the wound healing process by changing the expression of genes responsible for the production of inflammatory cytokines.” [24]

The photodissociation theory

Tests on rabbits established that hemoglobin is a primary photoacceptor absorbing low-intensity laser radiation of light of red and infra-red (“IR”) wavelengths. The exposure of blood to this radiation causes clearly defined changes in the IR and visible absorption spectra of the blood and erythrocytes (red blood cells). These spectral changes arise as a result of partial photodissociation (breaking down of chemical compounds with light) of hemoglobin-ligand (substance to bind biomolecules) complexes in the process of absorption of laser radiation. It is suggested that photodissociation is a primary reaction that arises in blood exposed to a low-intensity laser radiation.[25] This result is the disaggregation of aggregated RBC.

The transient local heating hypothesis

Upon contact with blood, a substantial amount of absorbed red light energy is converted to heat, which causes a local transient increase in the temperature of absorbing chromophores (molecules responsible for their colours). This local transient heating of absorbing molecules is different from the general heating of the whole cell, tissue and organism as commonly imagined. The local transient increase in temperature causes structural changes, and trigger biochemical activity that results in the disaggregation of RBC.[26]

The negative surface charge theory

Some researchers suggest that LLLT raises and restore the negative surface charge of the RBCs, rebalancing the play with electrolytes, and restoring their natural state of the RBCs repelling each other.[27]

Summary

In summary, there are several theories as to how LLLT would neutralise RBC aggregation. What matters is that LLLT is proven to succeed in disaggregating RBC.

From stasis to red blood cell aggregation

Recent research also shows that stasis in the vein is associated with RBC aggregation.[28] The aggregation is found to be due to the presence of macromolecular proteins such as fibrinogen and globulin.[29] Fibrinogen is the protein which is sensitive to inflammation and helps with the blood clotting function. It is a dominant factor in RBC aggregation.[30] Since inflammation is caused by an illness or disorder, one can attribute the presence of blood aggregation to the presence of an illness or a disorder. Therefore when RBC aggregation occurs, it means that the subject is at least not in perfect health.

Red blood cell aggregation to shear stress

Blood has a non-Newtonian fluid behaviour. Once it gets moving and builds momentum, it flows fast. Unlike water, which exhibits much more Newtonian properties, blood moves sluggishly at low speeds and is more liquid at fast speeds. When the heart is resting between beats (diastole) it becomes more viscous and then when the heart forces blood out (systole), with the higher shear stress blood becomes less viscous.

It is important to recognise that the presence of high RBC aggregation (along with hematocrit and plasma viscosity) is a factor contributing to low shear stress. Low shear stress leads to high whole blood viscosity.[31] Eventually, elevated blood viscosity and RBC aggregation are important factors in affecting blood circulation, cardiovascular diseases and a number of diseases, as found in the cumulative work of renowned haemarheology (blood flow) researcher, Dintenfas.[32]

Low shear stress regions along the arterial walls is associated with the occurrence of lesions.[33] This leads to deposit of plaque in these areas. When the plaque builds up, blood flow is further impeded, leading to turbulence and more plaque deposition. When the plaque deposition reaches a critical stage, it often causes vascular occlusive (blockage) disorder[34] , and thrombosis (blood clot) both in arterial and venous systems. This is the prelude to cardiovascular events such as heart attacks and strokes. Before that happens, the subject exhibits classic symptoms indicated in TCM with blood stasis – such as reduced immunity, increased tiredness and so on, making the subject vulnerable to diseases.

Effect of RBC aggregation on blood circulation and tissue perfusion

There is considerable amount of research conducted by a core group of researchers on the effect of RBC aggregation on blood circulation and tissue perfusion. Among the leading researchers are Baskurt and Meiselman. It is apparent that this body of research is growing with evidence that the interplay of these elements hold important keys that are central to a person’s well being.[35]

In summary there is substantial evidence to show that RBC aggregation impedes blood flow. The presence of RBC aggregation affects microcirculatory blood flow, venous flow, whole organ perfusion, and tissue hematocrit. Freedom from RBC would be a very desirable health condition.

Red blood cell aggregation is an independent risk factor

Studies also show that the presence of RBC aggregation is an independent risk factor for vascular occlusive disorder[36] and thrombosis both in arterial and venous systems[37] . With these properties, RBC aggregation would also be identifiable with poor circulation in the small capillaries. These studies show that RBC aggregation is also related to blockages in the larger vascular network, caused by the formation of plaques.

Information on Qi-Light.

Reconciling RBC disaggregation with blood circulaiton and Qi Flow in Traditional Chinese Medicine

Using Qi-Light to achieve RBC disaggregation


References

1. M H Knisely, “Intravascular erythrocyte aggregation (blood sludge)”, in: Handbook of Physiology, Section 2: Circulation, Vol. III, Am. Physiol. Soc., Bethesda, MD, 1965, pp 2249–2292.

2. O K Baskurt, H J Meiselman, “Hemodynamic effects of red blood cell aggregation”, Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 45, Jan 2007, pp 25-31.

3. G Mchedlishvili, L Gobejishvili, N Beritashvili, “Effect of intensified red blood cell aggregability on arterial pressure and mesenteric microcirculation”, Microvacs Res, Vol 45 (1993) p 233.

4. J J Bishop, P R Nance, A S Popel, M Intaglietta, P C Johnson. Relationship between erythrocyte aggregation size and flow rate in skeletal muscle venules. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 286 (2004) H113.

5. S Kim, A S Popel, M Intaglietta, P C Johnson. Effect of erythrocyte aggregation at normal human levels on functional capillary density in rat spinotrapezius muscle. American Journal of Physiology – Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 290 (2006) H941.

6. G Mchedlishvili, L Gobejishvili, N Beritashvili. Effect of intensified red blood cell aggregability on arterial pressure and mesenteric microcirculation. Microvacs Res, 45 (1993) p 233.

7. S Kim, A S Popel, M Intaglietta, P C Johnson. Aggregate formation of erythrocytes in postcapillary venules. Am J Physiol Heart circ Physiol, 288 (2005) p584.

8. M Cabel, H J Meiselman, A S Popel, P C Johnson. Contribution of red blood cell aggregation to venous vascular resistance in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol, 272 (1997) H1020.

9. J J Bishop, P R Nance, A S Popel, M Intaglietta, P C Johnson. Effect of erythrocyte aggregation on velocity profiles in venules. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 280 (2001) H222.

10. O Charansonney, S Mouren, J Dufaux, M Duvelleroy, E Vicaut, “Red blood cell aggregation and blood viscosity in an isolated heart preparation”, Biorheology, 30 (1993) 75.

11. O K Baskurt, M Edremitlioglu, “Myocardial tissue hematocrit: existence of a transmural gradient and alterations after fibrinogen infusions”, Clin Hemorheol, 15 (1995) 97.

12. O Yalcin, F Aydin, P Ulker, M Uyuklu, F Gungor, J K Armstrong, H J Meiselman, O K Baskurt, “Effects of red blood cell aggregation on myocardial hemocritic gradient using two approaches to increase aggregation”, American Journal of Physiology, 290 (2006) H765'

13. S Chien, S Usami, R J Dellenback, M I Gregerson, “Shear-dependent interaction of plasma proteins with erythrocytes in blood rheology”, American Journal of Physiology, 1970; 219: p143.

14. For example,  E B Assayag, N Bornstein, I Shapira, T Mardi, Y Goldin, T Tolshinki, Y Vered, V Zarkuth, M Burke, S Berliner, D S Bonet, “Inflammation-sensitive proteins and erythrocyte aggregation in atherothrombosis”, International Journal of Cardiology, 2005 15;98(2): pp 271-276.

15. D Lominadze and W L Dean, “Involvement of fibrinogen specific binding in erythrocyte aggregation”, ed B Imhof,Federation of European Biochemical Societies., 2002.

16. C Saldanha, “Mini Review on Eryhtrocyte Aggregation: Basic Concepts and Clinical Repercussions”, Boletim Hemorreologia, n2/2002, pista: bolet 2.

17. S Berliner, D Zeltser, R Rotstein, R Fusman, I Shapira, “A leukocyte and erythrocyte aggregation test to reveal the presence of smoldering inflammation and risk factors for artherosclerosis”, Medical Hypothesis, August 2001: 57(2), pp 207-209.

18. R Scherer, A Morarescu, G Ruhenstroth-Bauer, “The significance of plasma lipoprotein on erythrocyte aggregation and sedimentation”, ,British Journal of Haematology, 1976 Feb;32(2), pp 235-41.

19. R Lubart, H Friedman, and R Lavie. Photobiostimulation as a function of different wavelengths. The Journal of Laser Therapy. Vol 12. World Association of Laser Therapy. 2000.

20. T Karu et al. Changes in absorbance on monolayer of living cells induced by laser irradiation. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, IEEE Lasers and Electro-Optical Society. Vol 7:6 (December 2001) pp 982.

21. L B Silveira et al. In vivo study on mast cells behaviour following low-intensity visible and near infrared laser radiation. Lasers in Surgery and Medicine, Abstract issue. Abstract 304 (2002).

22. I Stadler et al. In vitro effects of low level laser irradiation at 660 nm on peripheral blood lymphocytes. Lasers in Surgery and Medicine, Vol 27:3 (2000) pp 255-61

23. J Kubota. Laser and sports medicine in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Abstract from II Congress of the International Association for Laser and Sports Medicine, Rosario, Argentina, March 10-12, 2000.

24. S M Safavi, B Kazemi, M Esmaeili, A Fallah, A Modarresi, M Mir. Effects of low-level He–Ne laser irradiation on the gene expression of IL-1ß, TNF-a, IFN-?, TGF-ß, bFGF, and PDGF in rat’s gingival. Lasers in Medical Science. Vol 23:3 (2008) pp 331-335.

25. G A Zalesskaya, E G Sambor. Interaction of low-intensity laser with blood and its components. Journal of Applied Spectroscopy. Vol 72:2 (2005) pp242-248.

26. T I Karu, O Tiphlova, R Esenaliev, V Letokhov: Two different mechanisms of low-intensity laser photobiological effects. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol 24 (1994) pp155-161.

27. L Gasparyan. Laser irradiation of the blood. Article in Laser World Guest Editorial, Nr 14 (2000), online: http://www.laser.nu/lllt/lllt_editorial6.htm.

28. C Le Devehat, M Vimeux, A Bertrand. Venous insufficiency and hemorheology. Influence of venous stasis on erythrocyte aggregation and disaggregation. J Mal Vasc., Vol 14:4 (1989): pp307-311.

29. M Yamamoto, Effects of fibrinogen, globulin, albumin and hematocrit on the kinetics of erythrocyte aggregation in Man. Angiology, Vol. 37:9 (1986), pp 663-671.

30. For example, E B Assayag, N Bornstein, I Shapira, T Mardi, Y Goldin, T Tolshinki, Y Vered, V Zarkuth, M Burke, S Berliner, D S Bonet. Inflammation-sensitive proteins and erythrocyte aggregation in atherothrombosis. International Journal of Cardiology, Vol 15;98(2) (2005): pp 271-276.

31. H. Schmid-Schönbein, G. Gallasch, J. v. Gosen, E. Volger, H. J. Klose. Red cell aggregation in blood flow: Effect on apparent viscosity of blood. Journal of Molecular Medicine. Vol 54:4 (1976), pp 159-167.

32. L Dintenfas, author of Blood Micro-rheology Viscosity Factors in Blood Flow, Ischemia and Thrombosis (1971 Butterworth Press), Rheology of Blood in Diagnostic and Preventive Medicine, (1976 Butterworth Press), Hyperactivity and Hypertension and Blood Viscosity in Heart Disease and Cancer (1981 Pergamon Press) plus numerous medical papers.

33. A Gnasso, C Irace, C Carallo, M S De Franceschi, C Motti, P L Mattioli, A Pujia. In Vivo Association Between Low Wall Shear Stress and Plaque in Subjects With Asymmetrical Carotid Atherosclerosis. Stroke. Vol 28 (1997) , pp 993-998.

34. H Demiroglu, I Barista, S Dündar, “Erythrocyte aggregability in patients with coronary heart disease”, Clinical Hemorheology, Vol 16:313 (1996).

35. O K Baskurt, H J Meiselman, “Hemodynamic effects of red blood cell aggregation”, Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 45, Jan 2007, pp 25-31.

36. H Demiroglu, I Barista, S Dündar. Erythrocyte aggregability in patients with coronary heart disease. Clinical Hemorheology, 16:313 (1996).

37. R R Puniyani, R Ajmani, P A Kale, “Risk factors evaluation in some cardiovascular diseases”, Journal of Biomedical Engineering,13:441 (1991).

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